Characteristics of ancient India

India is famous for its culture that has been constantly undergoing changes. With every dynasty and invader comes a new culture that leaves an indelible mark on the existing one. In order to understand the diverse Indian culture, it is necessary to understand the process it underwent throughout its past.

Many foreign migrants came to India and settled down. They married locally and became part of the Indian society. Our society, therefore, has a rich heritage. Due to the large diversity of people, there have been various religions, languages and customs in our country.

The correct understanding of history depends on two things. One is a careful and critical use of source material given to us by historians defending certain statements which should be decided on rational analysis. Secondly, historical events have causes and these causes should be fully examined. Above all, even the past must be subjected to critical analysis. It is only this way that historical knowledge will advance. The past of India goes back to several thousands of years.

We learn about it from the evidence our ancestors have left behind. For the near past, we have written and printed records. For times when printing was not known, there are records written by hand on paper. But earlier still, when paper was not made, records were written on dried palm leaves, the bark of the birch tree and plates of copper and in some cases, they were inscribed on large rocks, pillars, stones walls or tablets made of clay and stone. There was a time still further back when even writing was

Our knowledge of the life of people in those ancient days comes from the objects that they have left behind, for example, their pottery or their weapons and tools. These are things which are solid and which you can see and touch and have to be literally dug out of the earth. They are all clues in the game of a historical treasure hunt but they form a part of our culture. But these clues can be of many kinds.

The clues most commonly used are manuscripts. Manuscripts are ancient books, written either on dried palm leaves or the thick bark of the birch tree, or on paper. Some of the languages in which the very old books are written are languages which we in India do not use in everyday life any more, such as Pali and Prakrit.

Others are written in Sanskrit and Arabic, which we still study and sometimes use in our religious ceremonies although we do not use them at home. Another language Tamil, which is spoken in South India and whose literature goes to an early period is used even today.

These are called ‘classical languages’ and the history of many parts of the world is recorded in various classical languages. In Europe, ancient manuscripts were often written in Greek and Latin; in western Asia, they were written in Arabic and Hebrew, and in China, classical Chinese was used.

Harappan Civilisation

India has a continuous history covering a very long period. Evidence of neolithic habitation dating as far back as 7000 BC has been found in Mehrgarh in Baluchistan. However, the first notable civilisation flourished in India around 2700 BC in the North Western part of the Indian subcontinent, covering a large area.

The civilisation is referred to as the Harappan civilisation. Most of the sites of this civilisation developed on the banks of Indus, Ghaggar and its tributaries. The culture associated with the Harappan civilisation is the first known urban culture in India. The Harappans built the earliest cities complete with town planning, sanitation, drainage system and broad well-laid roads.

They built double storied houses of burntbricks each one of which had a bathroom, a kitchen and a well. The walled cities had other important buildings such as the Great Bath, Grannaries and Assembly Halls.

Occupations:

• Agriculture was the main occupation of the Harappans who were living in rural areas. Those living in the cities carried on internal and external trade and developed contacts with other civilisations such as Mesopotamia.
• They were excellent potters. Various types of utensils, toys, seals, figurines have been excavated from different sites.
• Harappans also had the technical knowledge of metals and the process of alloying.
• The bronze sculpture of a dancing girl found in Mohenjodaro testifies the sculptural skills and aesthetic sense of the Harappans.
• Shell, ivory, bone and faience were used as material for different crafts and objects.
• Lothal was a dockyard situated in Dholaka Taluk of Ahmedabad in Gujarat.
• It was also a well planned wall city. It was an important centre of sea trade with the western world. Another important town in Gujarat was Dhaulavira while Kalibangam was in Rajasthan.
• Numerous seals carrying the images of the one-horned rhinocerous known as unicorn, peepal leaves and a male god throw light on the religious beliefs of the Harappans.

Worship:

• It appears that they worshipped plants and animals and the forces of nature. They worshipped a male god resembling Lord Shiva (Pasupati Deva) of later times and a mother goddess among others.
• They probably believed in life after death and also in charms and spells.
• Seals engraved with animal figures like the humped bull, elephant and rhinocerous suggest that these animals were considered sacred.
• ‘Peepal’ has been found depicted on many seals. Harappans knew how to write and most of their seals contain some form of script. But unfortunately no one has yet been able to decipher that script.
• Our knowledge of the Harappan civilisation is based on the archaeological evidence alone. The figures of men and women on various seals found in excavations reveal that the people knew the art of spinning and weaving.
• They were perhaps the first people to cultivate cotton.
• A large number of Indus seals found in Mesopotamia which indicated of a possible trade between the Indus valley and Mesopotamian civilisation.
• By 1800 BC the Harappan civilisation began declining. However, we do not know the exact reason why this happened.