Education in pre-historic India

Education is a learning experience. But learning takes place at all times in one’s life. However, whereas some other learning experiences could be of a random or accidental nature, an educational experience is usually a deliberate and pre-designed programme with the purpose of affecting certain pre-determined behavioural changes in an individual.

You are going through such an experience right now as you proceed through various lessons of this course. But have you ever wondered how education is related to culture? Culture is the sum total of the accumulated experiences and achievements of previous generations inherited by succeeding generations as members of society

The structured process of passing on this collective pool of experiences and achievements may be called education. Hence education is not only a means of passing on cultural beliefs and ideas, but it is also shaped by cultural beliefs since it is a product of culture.

The system of education thus changes along with changes in culture. In this lesson we shall find out about the evolution of the systems of education that prevailed in India since the most ancient times because society considered the education of its members as one of its primary obligation.

Vedic Period

Learning in ancient India was impacted by the teachers called Gurus to the pupils who gathered around them and came to live with them in their house as members of the family. Such a place was called Gurukul. The Gurukul functioned as a domestic school, an ashrama, where the children’s learning was developed by the Guru who gave personal instruction as well as attention to the students.

Education was primarily the privilege of the upper castes. Learning was an intimate relationship between the teacher and the pupil called the GuruShishya Parampara. The process of learning generally began with a religious ceremony, ‘Upanayana’ (sacred thread ceremony). Education was normally imparted orally. It included memorization of texts like Vedas and Dharmashastras, fully or partially.

Later subjects like Grammar, Logic, and Metaphysics came to be taught and studied. The Maitrayani Upanishad teaches us that the supreme knowledge (gyan) is the result of learning (vidya), reflection (chintan) and austerity (tapas). Through introspection (atma vishleshana) one was to attain goodness (Satva), purity of mind and satisfaction of the soul in stages.

During this time self education was regarded as the proper method of attaining the highest knowledge. The best example of this can be found in the Taitteriya Upanishad where Bhrgu, son of Varuna, approaches his father and asks him to teach what is Brahmana. The father tells him to find this out through meditation.

Mauryan Period

During the Mauryan and the post-Mauryan periods, the Indian society went through a phase of intensive change. With the growth of urban centres and trade, the mercantile community came to acquire an important position. As a result, the guilds of the merchants began to play an active role in providing education.

They became centres of technical education and fostered the knowledge of mining, metallurgy, carpentry, weaving and dyeing. There were new formulations in building and architecture. With the emergence of city life, new architectural forms evolved. The guilds also gave patronage to astronomy, the study of the position of stars, to help them in ocean navigation.

The astronomers and cosmologists began a debate on “time” (kala). This helped in the development of a sharp sense of “time” (kala) in comparison to the past. Medical knowledge began to be systemised as Ayurveda. The elements formed the basis for the Indian medical system. A right combination of the three was necessary for a healthy body.

Knowledge of the medicinal properties of herbs and their usage reached a very advanced stage. ‘Charaka’ became famous for medicine and ‘Sushruta’ for surgery. ‘Charak Samhita’ written by Charaka was an authentic and exhaustive work on medicines. You must have heard of Chanakya, who was a renowned philosopher, scholar and teacher.

His most famous work is ‘Arthashastra’. The currcula of studies mentioned in the Arthashastra refers primarily to the education of princes. After Upanayana the prince learnt the four Vedas and the Vedic study included a study of sciences. They also learnt logic, economics and politics.

Education of those times was primarily life skills based which is so different from what education is today. The curricula in the Ramayana for the princes was Dhanurveda, Nitishastra, Siksha (lore) of elephants and chariots, Alekhya and Lekhya (Painting and writing), Langhana (jumping) and Tairana (swimming).

Gupta Period

In the Gupta period, the Jain and Buddhist systems of education assumed a different dimension. Buddhist monasteries admitted students for ten years. Learning began with the oral method. Later they shifted to the reading of literary texts. The monasteries had libraries. Important manuscripts were copied and stored.

Students from other countries like China and South-East Asia came to the Buddhist monasteries for education. The monasteries were normally maintained by grants from kings and the rich mercantile class. They attracted scholars from far and near. Fa-Hien also spent several years in the monastery at Pataliputra, studying Buddhist religious books.

Besides Pataliputra, there were other centres of learning like Vanarasi, Mathura, Ujjain and Nasik. Nalanda University was known all over Asia for its high standards of scholarship. The subjects taught included Vedanta, philosophy, study of the Puranas, epics, grammar, logic, astronomy, philosophy, medicine etc. Sanskrit, the court language was the medium of instruction.

The Jains used Sanskrit literature like ‘Adipurana’ and ‘Yashatilaka’ for educational purposes in the earlier phase. But to make education more popular, the medium was changed to Prakrit and other regional languages like Tamil, Kannada and so on. Books in the Jain and Buddhist libraries were written on palm leaves that were tied together and were known as “granthas”.

Slowly, Jainism and Buddhism lost royal patronage and their monasteries started declining as centres of education and learning. The ‘mathas’ supported by Brahmins were institutions parallel to Jain and Buddhist monasteries. The ‘mathas’ functioned like ashramas for educational purposes.

Post Gupta Period

Art and education made great strides in the reign of Harsha. He encouraged education at all levels; education was given in temples and monastries and higher education in universities of Taxila, Ujjain, Gaya and Nalanda. In Nalanda, Hiuen Tsang spent several years studying Buddhists sculptures. Shilabhadra, a renowned scholar was its head.

In the seventh and eighth centuries, ‘ghatikas’, or colleges attached to the temples emerged as new centres of learning. The ‘ghatikas’, provided Brahmanical education. The medium of instruction was Sanskrit. Entry to these temple colleges was open only to the upper castes or ‘dvijas’ (twice born). Use of Sanskrit as the medium of instruction distanced the common people from education. Education became the privilege of only the uppermost sections of society.

Aims of education

In ancient India, education was a matter of individual concern. The aim of education was the development of pupil’s overall personality.With this view of education as a process of one’s inner growth and self-fulfïlment, techniques, rules : and methods were evolved.

It was believed that the development of a person meant, primarily, the training of his/her mind as the instrument of acquiring knowledge. This knowledge would enhance his/her creative capacity. The thinking principle ‘manana shakti’ was reckoned higher than the subject of thinking. Thus, the primary subject of education was the mind itself.

Subjects

Knowledge of applied sciences like metallurgy, baked bricks, glazing, measurement of areas and volumes were known to people in ancient India. The scientific system of medicine was developed in the post-Vedic period. Medicine became a subject at centres of learning like Takshila and Varanasi.

The ‘Charak Samhita’ on medicine and ‘Sushruta Samhita’ on surgery were two important works in this field. Sushruta considered surgery as “the highest division of the healing arts and least liable to fallacy”. Mathematics or ‘ganita’ included Arithmetic, Geometry, Algebra, Astronomy and Astrology. Interest in Arithmetic was due to its use in trade and commerce.

‘Aryabhattiya’, by Aryabhatta was a major contribution in the field of mathematics. Astronomy was overshadowed by Brahmanical superstitions. ‘Surya Siddhanta’, a work on astronomy consisted of the description of the instruments and the methods of observation which were neither accurate nor impressive.

The bronze and copper remains from the time of Indus Valley Civilization are indicative of the development of chemistry and metallury. The processes of leather tanning, dyeing, and fermenting were devised during this period.

Language

Sanskrit enjoyed a position of privilege in ancient India. It served as a medium of Brahmanical education. Sanskrit was the lingua franca of the educated upper castes as well as the Hindu rulers and courtiers. ‘Prakrit’ as a language developed with the rise of Buddhism. It became the language of the masses. Ashoka, the Mauryan king used ‘Prakrit’ in his edicts.

It is interesting to note that in Sanskrit drama, women and the humble characters were made to speak in formalised Prakrit. Pali was one of the early variants of Prakrit. Most of the Buddhist canonical writings are in Prakrit and Pali, though some Sanskrit literature was also in circulation.

Another language ‘Apabhramsha’ was used by Jain writers in Gujarat and Rajasthan for the composition of poetry. The Dravidian languages Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malyalam were in use in the southern parts of India. They found expression in the literature of this period as well.