Structure of Indian society

We have been discussing about the diversity in Indian culture, the various kinds of people inhabiting this country and their diverse customs and traditions.

Perhaps more than in any other part of the world, India is a country where people have come to acquire multiple identities based on region (e.g. North India, North East India, Deccan and South India), language (e.g. Hindi, Tamil, and Telugu), religion (e.g. Hindu, Muslim, Christian, Buddhist, Jain, and Sikh), etc.

Each set of these and other identities corresponding to a distinct set of social relations, i.e., a distinct social structure. However, there are threads which bind many of them together.

Therefore understanding Indian social structure is necessary because it explains our relations with each other in society. It tells us what kind of social institutions exist in society and how they got modified over a period of time.

Structure of Indian Society

Tribe is one of the earliest identifiable ethenic cum social organizations. A fairly good number of tribes such as Munda, Ho, Oraon, Bhil, Gaddi, Santhal, Kol, Kandh, Khasi, Garo, Mizo, Naga exist in different parts of India.

These have been clubbed together in a group in a schedule of the Constitution of India and are known as the Scheduled Tribes. The pertinent question here is: Who is a tribal, and what differentiates a tribe from other groups based on caste or varna? The answer to this lies in the functioning of the institution.

We can identify a tribe by the following features: (i) All members are related to each other by blood (ii) All members are equal in status (iii) All members believe that they have descended from a common ancestor (iv) All members have equal access to the resources (v) The sense of private property is least visible (vi) Social differentiation exists only on the basis of age and sex. Tribes are very often made up of more than one clan.

A clan is an exogamous institution whereas a tribe is endogamous. Such tribes existed during the Vedic period. The Bharatas, Yadus, Turvasas, Druhyus, Purus and Anus were some of the prominent Tribes.

The head of the Tribe was known as Raja or King who was first among the equals. The major differentiation existed between people on the basis of ‘varna’ or colour. Thus, the people who did not belong to the vedic tribes were termed as dasa varna.

They are said to have had an alien language, a dark complexion and worshiped different gods. This initial differentiation later developed into a complex ‘varna system’, which in place of the Tribe had divided society into Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra categories.

These categories emerged principally because of frequent inter-tribal and intra-tribal wars, subjugation of the vanquished, appropriation of loot by the war-leaders, and unequal distribution of wealth.

The members of the Brahman ‘varna’ usually functioned as priests. The Kshatriyas were associated with the political functions, the Vaishyas were mostly agriculturists and the Shudras were the servile class. The first two ‘varnas’ exploited the most numerous and productive Vaishya varna, whereas the three in unision exploited the Shudras.

The three higher ‘varnas’ were also entitled to the sacred (upanayana) thread ceremony and were known as ‘dvijas’ (twice-born). Many changes took place in the economy during the post-vedic period. These changes needed new ideological support which came in the form of numerous unorthodox religious movements such as Buddhism which ridiculed the Hindu social system.

But Buddhism could not negate the caste system completely. The Kshatriyas were considered the highest ‘varna’ in the social hierarchy as seen by the Buddhists. The Vaishyas who were exploited under Brahmanism became members of these religions in large numbers in order to gain respectability.

However, there was no caste hierarchy within the Buddhist and Jain monastic communities.‘Varna/Jati’ system underwent further changes when new groups such as the Shakas, Kushanas, Parthians and Indo-Greeks people arrived in India. The economy was also undergoing changes.

Growth of urbanisation, craft production, and trade resulted in the rise of guilds or ‘shreni’ which in later times became castes. The behaviour of guild members was controlled through a guild court. Customarily the guild (shreni-dharma) had the power of law.

These guilds could act as bankers, financiers and trustees as well. Generally, these functions were carried out by a different category of merchants known as the ‘shreshthins’ (present day Seths of North India and the Chettis and Chettiyars of South India). Thus, the period between 500 BC and 500 AD saw the crystallisation of the caste system.

The number of castes increased manifold because of the growth of a number of crafts, arrival of new elements in the population, inter-caste marriages (anuloma and pratiloma) and inclusion of many Tribes into caste hierarchy. The Dharmashastras and the Smritis tried to fix the duties of each caste.

The relations between castes were generally governed by the rules of endogamy, commensuality and craft-exclusiveness.Between the fifth and seventh centuries further changes occurred in the varna/caste organisation. A creation of landlords through landgrants resulted in the transformation of Vaishyas into servile peasants. Large numbers of tribal cultivators were enrolled as Shudras.

Consequently the Shudras now emerged as farmers like the Vaishyas. Now, the Vaishyas and Shudras were lumped together. However, in regions other than the Ganga basin, the caste system took a different shape. In Bengal, South India and other border areas mainly two castes emerged i.e. the Brahmanas and the Shudras.

The Rajputs emerged as a significant factor in the society of Northern India from the seventh century onwards. In this period caste system became so entrenched in the psyche of the people that even the plants were divided on the basis of the varna/caste system. One text prescribes varying sizes of houses according to the varnas.

An important development during medieval times, particularly in South India, was the division of the Shudras into ‘pure’ (sat) and ‘impure’ (asat) categories. Also typical of the south were the so called ‘left-hand’ (idangai) and ‘right-hand’ (velangai) castes. Manu noted 61 castes whereas a later text counted hundreds of mixed castes (varnasankara).

Other than the Rajputs, another caste that developed during this period was the Kayastha. The Kayasthas were traditionally scribes who got transformed into a separate caste as all types of scribes got clubbed together to form one endogamous group. Very often a large number of these castes claim origin from highly respected ancestors and explain their current lower status in terms of economic or other factors.

The Khatris, an important caste in Northern India, claim that they were of Kshatriya origin, but took to commerce, which brought them the contempt of their caste fellows and they had to accept Vaishya status. The Gurjaras, Jats and Ahirs all claim Kshatriya origin, the status they came to lose later for various reasons.

This process of claiming high caste origin continued till the 1950s when the Constitution of India provided for reservations for lower castes in most government jobs.The caste system has its regional variations. The formation of regions and regional consciousness after the eighth century AD contributed to this variation.

The North Indian Brahmanas are divided not only on the basis of gotra but also on the basis of their residence. Thus we have Kanyakubja, Sarayuparier and Maithila brahmanas belonging to Kanauj, Sarayu river and Mithila respectively. A large number of Rajput sub-castes carry their earlier tribal names such as, Tomaras, Kacchavahas, Hadas and Chauhanas.

These subcastes also acquired gotras for themselves. Thus the number of castes and sub-castes as well as that of the gotras kept increasing in medieval times. The Marathas also became a caste.In modern times the caste system acquired some new features. Thus, the idea of ‘surnames’ was also added.

One particular caste or sub-caste came to acquire one, sometimes more, ‘surnames’. However, ample variation is found in this matter. Caste and anti-caste movements of the modern period resulted in the formation of further new castes. Thus the Brahma-samajis acquired status which is very similar to a caste.

The caste system, as can be seen from the above description, has a complex working method. Substantial regional variation is found and hence it has been impossible to define it in a precise manner region, sub-region, economic status, nearness to political authority, craft, vocation, following a particular deity all have come to play a role in its formation and subsequent changes.

The influence of caste system has been so great that even though the egalitarian religious reformers of the medieval period such as Basava, Ramanand and Kabir, tried to abolish caste among their followers, their sects soon took on the characteristics of new castes. The Sikhs, could not overcome caste feelings.

Even the Muslims formed caste groups. Syrian Christians of Kerala, earlier divided into sections, took on a caste character. The Christian converts brought their caste prejudices with them and high caste converts consider themselves aloof from those of the lower orders.